# KRAS

Source: https://onco.cc/targets/kras/  
OnCo record `kras` (Target). Data CC BY-NC 4.0, attribute "Data from OnCo (onco.cc)"; commercial use needs a licence.

## TL;DR

KRAS is the most commonly mutated cancer gene, called 'undruggable' for 40 years until 2021.

## Summary

KRAS mutations drive ~90% of pancreatic, ~40% of colorectal, and ~30% of lung adenocarcinomas. Sotorasib and adagrasib (G12C) were first; G12D inhibitors (MRTX1133, zoldonrasib) and pan-RAS(ON) inhibitors (daraxonrasib, RMC-6236, in phase 3 in pancreatic cancer) are the next wave. Combination with EGFR antibodies is needed in colorectal cancer.

## Fields

- Kind: Target
- Last checked: 2026-09-04
- Tags: driver
- Symbol: KRAS
- Class: oncogene
- Biology: Small GTPase switch; oncogenic mutations lock it in the GTP-bound ON state. Adaptive feedback and secondary mutations drive resistance.
- Where found: Pancreatic (~90%); Colorectal (~40-45%); Lung adenocarcinoma (~30%); Endometrial, ovarian (subsets); Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: activating mutation (any allele) 88-94%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: g12d allele (share of kras mutation records) 39-41%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: g12v allele (share of kras mutation records) 28-37%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: g12r allele (share of kras mutation records) 12-21%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: q61h, q61r, q61l or q61k allele (share of kras mutation records) 5-8%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: g12c allele (share of kras mutation records) 1-2%; Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: no kras mutation (fusion and alternative-driver search) 6-12%; Colorectal cancer: activating mutation (any allele) 40-44%; Colorectal cancer: g12d allele (share of kras mutation records) 27-29%; Colorectal cancer: g12v allele (share of kras mutation records) 16-22%; Colorectal cancer: g13d allele (share of kras mutation records) 16-24%; Colorectal cancer: g12c allele (share of kras mutation records) 6-9%; Colorectal cancer: codon 59, 61, 117 or 146 mutation (share of kras missense records) 16-18%; Gallbladder cancer: mutation (amplification rarer) about 11%; Non-small-cell lung cancer: activating mutation (any allele) 27-33%; Non-small-cell lung cancer: g12c allele (share of kras mutation records) 41-51%; Non-small-cell lung cancer: g12v, g12d, g12a, g13x and q61x (share of kras mutation records) 49-59%

## Notes

- Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: mutated in 88 to 94% (88% of 3,594 on targeted panels, Singhi 2019; 93.7% of 2,336 MSK-IMPACT samples, cBioPortal). The allele matters: G12D about 40%, G12V about 32%, G12R about 16%, Q61 about 7% and G12C 1 to 2%. G12D carries the worst survival (6 versus 9 months; Bournet 2016) and G12R the best; codon 61 alleles were associated with improved survival (Witkiewicz 2015). Mutant allele copy gain is common (296 of 853 dosage-annotated MSK samples) and helps set the basal-like phenotype (Chan-Seng-Yue 2020). Daraxonrasib, a tri-complex RAS(ON) inhibitor, halved the death hazard in previously treated RAS-mutant disease (RASolute 302; O'Reilly 2026), while the G12C-only covalent inhibitors reach 21 to 33% response in the 1 to 2% who carry that allele (Strickler 2023, Bekaii-Saab 2023).
- Colorectal cancer: mutated in 40 to 44%, with an allele distribution unlike any other cancer: G12D about 29%, G12V about 20%, G13D about 18%, G12C about 7% and A146T about 6% of KRAS mutation records (cBioPortal). About one in six KRAS mutations sits outside exon 2, which is why extended RAS testing of KRAS and NRAS exons 2, 3 and 4 is required before an EGFR antibody (Douillard 2013, Sepulveda 2017). Any RAS mutation predicts no benefit from cetuximab or panitumumab (Karapetis 2008); G12C, about 3% of all colorectal cancers, is the only allele with a targeted option, and only in combination with an EGFR antibody because the inhibitor alone triggers adaptive EGFR reactivation. KRAS-mutant subclones are also the commonest cause of acquired resistance to EGFR antibodies and are visible in plasma months before progression (Misale 2012, Diaz 2012).
- Lung cancer: mutated in 27 to 33% of Western adenocarcinoma, 10.9% in East Asian adenocarcinoma and 7.3% in never smokers, and in only 1.4% of squamous tumours (cBioPortal). Lung is the one common cancer where G12C dominates, at 41 to 51% of KRAS mutation records or about 13% of all adenocarcinomas, because the G to T transversion that produces it is the signature lesion of tobacco carcinogens (Alexandrov 2016); in colorectal and pancreatic cancer G12D leads instead. The other half of the KRAS population, G12V, G12D, G12A, G13X and Q61X, has no approved inhibitor. What decides behaviour is the co-mutation rather than the allele: STK11 loss makes the tumour immune-poor, KEAP1 loss makes it resistant to everything, and TP53 co-mutation makes it inflamed and relatively favourable (Skoulidis 2015, Arbour 2018, Ricciuti 2022).

## Sources

- Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KRAS
- Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KRAS

## Connected records

- biomarkers: [KRAS G12C](https://onco.cc/biomarkers/kras-g12c/), [KRAS G12D (and other non-G12C KRAS mutations)](https://onco.cc/biomarkers/kras-g12d/), [RAS wild-type (extended KRAS and NRAS testing)](https://onco.cc/biomarkers/ras-wild-type/), [STK11 or KEAP1 loss in KRAS-mutant lung adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/biomarkers/stk11-keap1-loss/)
- cancers: [Adenocarcinoma of the lung](https://onco.cc/cancers/lung-adenocarcinoma/), [Adenosquamous carcinoma of the pancreas](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatic-adenosquamous-carcinoma/), [Advanced and metastatic small bowel adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/advanced-small-bowel-adenocarcinoma/), [Ampullary cancer (ampulla of Vater)](https://onco.cc/cancers/ampullary/), [Appendiceal adenocarcinoma (mucinous and non-mucinous, including signet ring cell)](https://onco.cc/cancers/appendiceal-adenocarcinoma/), [Appendiceal cancer and pseudomyxoma peritonei](https://onco.cc/cancers/appendiceal/), [Borderline resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/borderline-resectable-pdac/), [BRCA or PALB2-mutant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/brca-palb2-pdac/), [Chronic myelomonocytic leukaemia and MDS/MPN overlap neoplasms](https://onco.cc/cancers/cmml/), [Colloid (mucinous non-cystic) carcinoma of the pancreas](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatic-colloid-carcinoma/), [Colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/colorectal/), [Early-onset colorectal cancer (under 50)](https://onco.cc/cancers/early-onset-colorectal/), [Endometrial cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/endometrial/), [Gallbladder cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/gallbladder/), [Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm and other pancreatic cystic precursors](https://onco.cc/cancers/ipmn-cystic-precursors/), [Invasive carcinoma arising in an intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN-associated carcinoma)](https://onco.cc/cancers/ipmn-associated-carcinoma/), [Invasive mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung](https://onco.cc/cancers/invasive-mucinous-adenocarcinoma-lung/), [KRAS G12C-mutant colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/kras-g12c-colorectal/), [KRAS G12C-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/kras-g12c-nsclc/), [KRAS G12C-mutant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/kras-g12c-pdac/), [KRAS wild-type pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/kras-wild-type-pdac/), [Localised small bowel adenocarcinoma (stage I to III, resected)](https://onco.cc/cancers/localised-small-bowel-adenocarcinoma/), [Locally advanced unresectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/locally-advanced-pdac/), [Low-grade appendiceal mucinous neoplasm and pseudomyxoma peritonei](https://onco.cc/cancers/low-grade-appendiceal-mucinous-neoplasm/), [Lung cancer (all types)](https://onco.cc/cancers/lung-cancer/), [Metastatic pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/metastatic-pdac/), [Mismatch repair deficient (MSI-high) pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/msi-high-pdac/), [Mucinous cystic neoplasm of the pancreas with associated invasive carcinoma (MCN-associated carcinoma)](https://onco.cc/cancers/mcn-associated-carcinoma/), [Non-small-cell lung cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/nsclc/), [Ovarian cancer](https://onco.cc/cancers/ovarian/), [Pancreatic acinar cell carcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatic-acinar-cell-carcinoma/), [Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatic/), [Pancreatoblastoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatoblastoma/), [Resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/cancers/resectable-pdac/), [Serrated adenocarcinoma of the colon and rectum](https://onco.cc/cancers/colorectal-serrated-adenocarcinoma/), [Small intestine cancer (small bowel adenocarcinoma)](https://onco.cc/cancers/small-bowel/), [Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas](https://onco.cc/cancers/solid-pseudopapillary-neoplasm/), [Undifferentiated carcinoma of the pancreas with osteoclast-like giant cells](https://onco.cc/cancers/pancreatic-undifferentiated-carcinoma-ogc/)
- drugs: [Adagrasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/adagrasib/), [Avutometinib + defactinib](https://onco.cc/drugs/avutometinib-defactinib/), [Calderasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/calderasib/), [Daraxonrasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/daraxonrasib/), [Divarasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/divarasib/), [ELI-002 7P](https://onco.cc/drugs/eli-002-7p/), [Elironrasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/elironrasib/), [Fulzerasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/fulzerasib/), [Garsorasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/garsorasib/), [GFH375](https://onco.cc/drugs/gfh375/), [Glecirasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/glecirasib/), [Guardant360 CDx](https://onco.cc/drugs/guardant360-cdx/), [INCB161734](https://onco.cc/drugs/incb161734/), [JDQ443](https://onco.cc/drugs/jdq443/), [JYP0015](https://onco.cc/drugs/jyp0015/), [MRTX1133](https://onco.cc/drugs/mrtx1133/), [Olomorasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/olomorasib/), [Resolution ctDx FIRST](https://onco.cc/drugs/resolution-ctdx-first/), [Setidegrasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/setidegrasib/), [Sotorasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/sotorasib/), [Tempus xT CDx](https://onco.cc/drugs/tempus-xt-cdx/), [therascreen companion diagnostic kits (KRAS, EGFR, PIK3CA, FGFR, BRAF)](https://onco.cc/drugs/therascreen-cdx/), [VS-7375](https://onco.cc/drugs/vs-7375/), [Zoldonrasib](https://onco.cc/drugs/zoldonrasib/)
- companies: [Adventris Pharmaceuticals](https://onco.cc/companies/adventris-pharmaceuticals/), [Anocca](https://onco.cc/companies/anocca/), [BridgeBio Oncology Therapeutics](https://onco.cc/companies/bridgebio-oncology-therapeutics/), [Cogent Biosciences](https://onco.cc/companies/cogent-biosciences/), [Erasca](https://onco.cc/companies/erasca/), [FinalDose](https://onco.cc/companies/finaldose/), [Frontier Medicines](https://onco.cc/companies/frontier-medicines/), [Imagene AI](https://onco.cc/companies/imagene-ai/), [Inivata](https://onco.cc/companies/inivata/), [Insilico Medicine](https://onco.cc/companies/insilico-medicine/), [Kumquat Biosciences](https://onco.cc/companies/kumquat-biosciences/), [Lucence](https://onco.cc/companies/lucence/), [Quanta Therapeutics](https://onco.cc/companies/quanta-therapeutics/), [Treeline Biosciences](https://onco.cc/companies/treeline-biosciences/), [Verastem Oncology](https://onco.cc/companies/verastem/)
- pathways: [Acute myeloid leukaemia (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/aml-signalling/), [Autophagy](https://onco.cc/pathways/autophagy/), [BCR::ABL1 (Philadelphia chromosome)](https://onco.cc/pathways/bcr-abl1-signalling/), [Chemical carcinogenesis - receptor activation](https://onco.cc/pathways/chemical-carcinogenesis-receptor-activation/), [Choline metabolism in cancer](https://onco.cc/pathways/choline-metabolism-in-cancer/), [Chronic myeloid leukaemia (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/cml-signalling/), [Colorectal cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/colorectal-cancer-signalling/), [DNA replication & origin licensing](https://onco.cc/pathways/dna-replication-licensing/), [DNA replication stress](https://onco.cc/pathways/replication-stress/), [Drivers, passengers & the two-hit model](https://onco.cc/pathways/oncogene-activation-two-hit/), [Drug efflux pumps (ABC transporters)](https://onco.cc/pathways/drug-efflux-pumps/), [Drug-tolerant persister cells](https://onco.cc/pathways/drug-tolerant-persisters/), [Endometrial cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/endometrial-cancer-signalling/), [FGF / FGFR signalling](https://onco.cc/pathways/fgfr-signalling/), [Gastric cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/gastric-cancer-signalling/), [Glutamine addiction](https://onco.cc/pathways/glutamine-metabolism/), [Hepatocellular carcinoma (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/hepatocellular-carcinoma-signalling/), [Hippo-YAP/TAZ](https://onco.cc/pathways/hippo-yap/), [Invasion: proteases, adhesion & the invasive front](https://onco.cc/pathways/invasion-ecm-degradation/), [KEAP1-NRF2 antioxidant pathway](https://onco.cc/pathways/keap1-nrf2/), [Lipid synthesis, uptake & cholesterol](https://onco.cc/pathways/lipid-metabolism-cancer/), [MicroRNAs in cancer](https://onco.cc/pathways/micrornas-in-cancer/), [MYC](https://onco.cc/pathways/myc/), [Non-small cell lung cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/nsclc-signalling/), [Pancreatic cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/pancreatic-cancer-signalling/), [PI3K / AKT / mTOR](https://onco.cc/pathways/pi3k-akt-mtor/), [Proteoglycans in cancer](https://onco.cc/pathways/proteoglycans-in-cancer/), [RAS / RAF / MEK / ERK (MAPK)](https://onco.cc/pathways/ras-mapk/), [Receptor tyrosine kinase activation](https://onco.cc/pathways/rtk-activation/), [Renal cell carcinoma (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/renal-cell-carcinoma-signalling/), [Resistance routes: how a blocked pathway comes back](https://onco.cc/pathways/resistance-routes-map/), [Thyroid cancer (KEGG map)](https://onco.cc/pathways/thyroid-cancer-signalling/)
- terms: [Adenoma-carcinoma sequence](https://onco.cc/terms/adenoma-carcinoma-sequence/), [Anti-EGFR rechallenge](https://onco.cc/terms/anti-egfr-rechallenge/), [Bioelectric theory of cancer (Levin)](https://onco.cc/terms/bioelectric-theory-of-cancer/), [Classical versus basal-like (squamous) subtypes of pancreatic cancer, and GATA6](https://onco.cc/terms/classical-vs-basal-like/), [Conversion therapy in bowel cancer](https://onco.cc/terms/conversion-therapy-colorectal/), [Downstream and upstream](https://onco.cc/terms/downstream/), [Driver and passenger mutations: the refined somatic mutation theory](https://onco.cc/terms/driver-passenger-model/), [Driver mutation](https://onco.cc/terms/driver-mutation/), [Extended RAS testing](https://onco.cc/terms/extended-ras-testing/), [GATA6 as the marker of classical versus basal-like pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/terms/gata6-classical-basal-marker/), [Growth signal](https://onco.cc/terms/growth-signal/), [Hallmark: sustaining proliferative signalling](https://onco.cc/terms/sustaining-proliferative-signaling/), [KRAS allelic imbalance and mutant KRAS dosage in pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/terms/kras-allelic-imbalance/), [KRAS mutation subtypes (G12C, G12D, G12V)](https://onco.cc/terms/kras-mutation-subtypes/), [Low-grade serous ovarian cancer (LGSOC)](https://onco.cc/terms/lgsoc/), [Oncogene](https://onco.cc/terms/oncogene/), [Pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PanIN), the microscopic precursor of pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/terms/panin/), [Serrated pathway](https://onco.cc/terms/serrated-pathway/), [Somatic mutation theory of cancer](https://onco.cc/terms/somatic-mutation-theory/), [STK11 / KEAP1 co-mutations](https://onco.cc/terms/stk11-keap1/), [Wild-type (WT)](https://onco.cc/terms/wild-type/)
- trials: [A Study of RNK08954 in Subjects With Advanced Solid Tumors With KRAS ((Kirsten Rat Sarcoma) G12D Mutation](https://onco.cc/trials/nct06667544/), [A Study of TSN1611 Treating Patients With Advanced Solid Tumors Harboring KRAS G12D Mutation](https://onco.cc/trials/nct06385925/), [Alliance N0147](https://onco.cc/trials/n0147/), [CAIRO5](https://onco.cc/trials/cairo5/), [CALGB/SWOG 80405](https://onco.cc/trials/calgb-80405/), [CHRONOS](https://onco.cc/trials/chronos/), [CodeBreaK 100 (pancreatic cancer cohort)](https://onco.cc/trials/codebreak-100/), [CodeBreaK 200](https://onco.cc/trials/codebreak-200/), [CodeBreaK 300](https://onco.cc/trials/codebreak-300/), [ComboMATCH: FOLFOX with or without binimetinib in second-line biliary tract cancer with MAPK pathway alterations](https://onco.cc/trials/combomatch-binimetinib-folfox/), [CRYSTAL & FIRE-3](https://onco.cc/trials/crystal-fire3/), [Krascendo 1](https://onco.cc/trials/krascendo-1/), [KRYSTAL-12](https://onco.cc/trials/krystal-12/), [MRC COIN](https://onco.cc/trials/coin/), [NCIC CO.17](https://onco.cc/trials/co-17/), [New EPOC](https://onco.cc/trials/new-epoc/), [NOTABLE (nimotuzumab, KRAS wild-type pancreatic cancer)](https://onco.cc/trials/notable-trial/), [OPUS](https://onco.cc/trials/opus/), [PETACC-8](https://onco.cc/trials/petacc-8/), [Phase 1/2 Study of HYP-2090PTSA in Patients With Advanced Solid Tumors Harboring KRAS Mutation](https://onco.cc/trials/nct06243354/), [Precision-Panc](https://onco.cc/trials/precision-panc/), [PRIME](https://onco.cc/trials/prime/), [RAMP 201](https://onco.cc/trials/ramp-201/), [RASolute 302](https://onco.cc/trials/rasolute-302/), [Study of RMC-9805 in Participants With KRAS G12D-Mutant Solid Tumors](https://onco.cc/trials/nct06040541/)
- key papers: [A combination of molecular markers and clinical features improve the classification of pancreatic cysts](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-springer-pancreatic-cyst-molecular-classification-gastroenterology-2015/), [A genetic model for colorectal tumorigenesis](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-fearon-cell/), [A molecularly annotated platform of patient-derived xenografts identifies HER2 as an effective therapeutic target in cetuximab-resistant colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-bertotti-xenopatients-her2-cetuximab-resistant-colorectal-cancer-discov-2011/), [A renewed model of pancreatic cancer evolution based on genomic rearrangement patterns](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-notta-punctuated-evolution-pancreatic-nature-2016/), [Acquired resistance of lung adenocarcinomas to gefitinib or erlotinib is associated with a second mutation in the EGFR kinase domain](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-pao-egfr-t790m-acquired-resistance-plos-med-2005/), [Assessment of resistance mechanisms and clinical implications in patients with EGFR T790M-positive lung cancer and acquired resistance to osimertinib](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-oxnard-osimertinib-resistance-mechanisms-jama-oncol-2018/), [Association of alterations in main driver genes with outcomes of patients with resected pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-qian-driver-genes-outcomes-resected-pancreatic-jama-oncol-2018/), [Associations of tissue tumour mutational burden and mutational status with clinical outcomes in KEYNOTE-042](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-keynote-042-tmb-mutations-ann-oncol-2023/), [Associations of tissue tumour mutational burden and mutational status with clinical outcomes with pembrolizumab plus chemotherapy versus chemotherapy for metastatic non-small-cell lung cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-keynote-189-407-tmb-jtocrr-2023/), [Biliary cancer: utility of next-generation sequencing for clinical management](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-javle-biliary-ngs-cancer-2016/), [Cancer genome landscapes: about 140 driver genes, and each tumour needs only a handful](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-vogelstein-cancer-genome-landscapes-science-2013/), [Cetuximab and chemotherapy as initial treatment for metastatic colorectal cancer (CRYSTAL)](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-van-cutsem-crystal-cetuximab-folfiri-nejm-2009/), [Circulating nucleic acids are associated with outcomes of patients with pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-bernard-ctdna-exodna-pancreatic-gastroenterology-2019/), [Circulating tumor DNA as a clinical test in resected pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-groot-kras-ctdna-clinical-test-resected-pancreatic-ccr-2019/), [Circulating tumor DNA as a potential marker of adjuvant chemotherapy benefit following surgery for localized pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-lee-ctdna-adjuvant-benefit-localized-pancreatic-ann-oncol-2019/), [Classifying colorectal cancer by tumor location rather than sidedness highlights a continuum in mutation profiles and consensus molecular subtypes](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-loree-tumour-location-continuum-colorectal-ccr-2018/), [Clinical sequencing defines the genomic landscape of metastatic colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-yaeger-metastatic-colorectal-genomic-landscape-cancer-cell-2018/), [Co-occurring genomic alterations define major subsets of KRAS-mutant lung adenocarcinoma with distinct biology, immune profiles, and therapeutic vulnerabilities](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-skoulidis-kras-co-mutation-subsets-cancer-discov-2015/), [CodeBreaK 100: sotorasib in KRAS p.G12C-mutated advanced pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-codebreak-100-sotorasib-kras-g12c-pancreatic-nejm-2023/), [CodeBreaK 200: sotorasib versus docetaxel in KRAS G12C-mutated lung cancer, a modest win for the first KRAS drug](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-codebreak-200-lancet-2023/), [CodeBreaK 300: sotorasib plus panitumumab in chemotherapy-refractory KRAS G12C colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-codebreak-300-nejm-2023/), [Combined circulating tumor DNA and protein biomarker-based liquid biopsy for the earlier detection of pancreatic cancers](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-cohen-ctdna-protein-liquid-biopsy-pancreatic-pnas-2017/), [Comprehensive molecular characterization of gallbladder carcinoma and potential targets for intervention](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-giraldo-gallbladder-msk-impact-ccr-2022/), [Comprehensive molecular characterization of human colon and rectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tcga-colorectal-comprehensive-characterization-nature-2012/), [Comprehensive molecular profiling of lung adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tcga-lung-adenocarcinoma-nature-2014/), [Concurrent inhibition of oncogenic and wild-type RAS-GTP for cancer therapy](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-holderfield-ras-on-multi-selective-inhibitor-nature-2024/), [Core signaling pathways in human pancreatic cancers revealed by global genomic analyses](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-jones-pancreatic-core-pathways-science-2008/), [Daraxonrasib or Chemotherapy in Previously Treated Metastatic Pancreatic Cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-daraxonrasib-pancreatic-n-engl-j-med-2026/), [Diminished efficacy of programmed death-(ligand)1 inhibition in STK11- and KEAP1-mutant lung adenocarcinoma is affected by KRAS mutation status](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-ricciuti-stk11-keap1-kras-immunotherapy-jto-2022/), [Distinct patterns of somatic genome alterations in lung adenocarcinomas and squamous cell carcinomas](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-campbell-pan-lung-somatic-alterations-nat-genet-2016/), [DPC4 gene status of the primary carcinoma correlates with patterns of failure in patients with pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-iacobuzio-donahue-dpc4-failure-pattern-autopsy-jco-2009/), [Dual-targeted therapy with trastuzumab and lapatinib in treatment-refractory, KRAS codon 12/13 wild-type, HER2-positive metastatic colorectal cancer (HERACLES)](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-sartore-bianchi-heracles-trastuzumab-lapatinib-lancet-oncol-2016/), [Effect of first-line chemotherapy combined with cetuximab or bevacizumab on overall survival in KRAS wild-type advanced or metastatic colorectal cancer (CALGB/SWOG 80405)](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-venook-calgb-80405-cetuximab-vs-bevacizumab-jama-2017/), [Effects of co-occurring genomic alterations on outcomes in patients with KRAS-mutant non-small cell lung cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-arbour-kras-co-mutation-outcomes-ccr-2018/), [Emergence of KRAS mutations and acquired resistance to anti-EGFR therapy in colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-misale-kras-acquired-resistance-anti-egfr-colorectal-nature-2012/), [FDA's Project Optimus manifesto: cancer drugs are approved at doses that are too high](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-drug-dosing-conundrum-nejm-2021/), [FOLFIRI plus cetuximab versus FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab as first-line treatment for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (FIRE-3)](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-heinemann-fire-3-cetuximab-vs-bevacizumab-lancet-oncol-2014/), [FOLFOXIRI plus bevacizumab versus FOLFIRI plus bevacizumab as first-line treatment of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer: updated overall survival and molecular subgroup analyses of TRIBE](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-cremolini-tribe-folfoxiri-bevacizumab-lancet-oncol-2015/), [Genetic alterations during colorectal-tumor development](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-vogelstein-genetic-alterations-colorectal-tumor-development-nejm-1988/), [Genomic analyses identify molecular subtypes of pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-bailey-molecular-subtypes-pancreatic-nature-2016/), [Genomic and evolutionary classification of lung cancer in never smokers](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-zhang-lung-cancer-never-smokers-nat-genet-2021/), [Genomic landscape of lung adenocarcinoma in East Asians](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-chen-east-asian-lung-adenocarcinoma-nat-genet-2020/), [Genomic profiling of Indian gallbladder carcinoma: mutational insights in a high-incidence population](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-suryavanshi-indian-gallbladder-genomics-jco-go-2025/), [Heining 2018: NRG1 fusions in KRAS wild-type pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-heining-nrg1-fusions-kras-wild-type-pancreatic-cancer-discov-2018/), [HER2 overexpression and amplification as a potential therapeutic target in colorectal cancer: analysis of 3256 patients enrolled in the QUASAR, FOCUS and PICCOLO colorectal cancer trials](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-richman-her2-amplification-quasar-focus-piccolo-j-pathol-2016/), [Integrated genomic characterization of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tcga-pancreatic-integrated-characterisation-cancer-cell-2017/), [IPMNs with co-occurring invasive cancers: neighbours but not always relatives](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-felsenstein-ipmn-cooccurring-cancer-relatedness-gut-2018/), [Jones 2019: NRG1 gene fusions are recurrent, clinically actionable rearrangements in KRAS wild-type pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-jones-nrg1-fusions-recurrent-actionable-kras-wild-type-pdac-ccr-2019/), [K-ras mutations and benefit from cetuximab in advanced colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-karapetis-kras-cetuximab-colorectal-nejm-2008/), [KRAS G12C metastatic colorectal cancer: specific features of a new emerging target population](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-schirripa-kras-g12c-metastatic-colorectal-clin-colorectal-cancer-2020/), [KRAS G12D mutation subtype is a prognostic factor for advanced pancreatic adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-bournet-kras-g12d-prognosis-pancreatic-ctg-2016/), [KRYSTAL-1: adagrasib in advanced solid tumours harbouring a KRAS G12C mutation, including pancreatic cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-krystal-1-adagrasib-kras-g12c-solid-tumours-jco-2023/), [KRYSTAL-1: adagrasib with or without cetuximab in KRAS G12C-mutated colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-krystal-1-crc-yaeger-nejm-2023/), [KRYSTAL-12 plain language summary: adagrasib for non-small-cell lung cancer with KRAS G12C mutations](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-krystal-12-plain-language-summary-future-oncol-2026/), [Lung adenocarcinoma promotion by air pollutants](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-hill-lung-adenocarcinoma-air-pollutants-nature-2023/), [MET exon 14 mutations in non-small-cell lung cancer are associated with advanced age and stage-dependent MET genomic amplification and c-Met overexpression](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-awad-met-exon-14-mutations-lung-jco-2016/), [Molecular and clinical determinants of targeted therapy treatment in biliary tract cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-cowzer-biliary-targeted-therapy-determinants-ccr-2026/), [Molecular biomarkers for the evaluation of colorectal cancer: guideline from ASCP, CAP, AMP and ASCO](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-sepulveda-molecular-biomarkers-colorectal-guideline-jco-2017/), [Molecular characterization of KRAS wild-type tumors in patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-philip-kras-wild-type-pancreatic-ccr-2022/), [Most human carcinomas of the exocrine pancreas contain mutant c-K-ras genes](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-almoguera-kras-codon-12-pancreatic-cell-1988/), [Mutational signatures associated with tobacco smoking in human cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-alexandrov-tobacco-smoking-mutational-signatures-science-2016/), [NILE: clinical utility of comprehensive cell-free DNA analysis to identify genomic biomarkers in patients with newly diagnosed metastatic non-small cell lung cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-leighl-nile-cfdna-tissue-genotyping-ccr-2019/), [Ostrem and Shokat: the hidden pocket that made KRAS G12C druggable](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-ostrem-kras-g12c-nature-2013/), [Overall survival in patients with pancreatic cancer receiving matched therapies following molecular profiling: a retrospective analysis of the Know Your Tumor registry trial](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-pishvaian-lancet-oncol/), [Pancreatic cancer genomes reveal aberrations in axon guidance pathway genes](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-biankin-pancreatic-exomes-axon-guidance-nature-2012/), [Panitumumab vs Bevacizumab Added to Standard First-line Chemotherapy and Overall Survival Among Patients With RAS Wild-type, Left-Sided Metastatic Colorectal Cancer: A Randomized Clinical Trial](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-paradigm-jama-2023/), [Panitumumab-FOLFOX4 treatment and RAS mutations in colorectal cancer (PRIME)](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-douillard-prime-panitumumab-ras-nejm-2013/), [Pathways of progression from intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm to pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma based on molecular features](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-omori-ipmn-progression-pathways-gastroenterology-2019/), [Population-Specific Immunogenomic Alterations in Gallbladder Cancer and Prognostic Significance](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-zhu-population-specific-immunogenomics-gallbladder-cancer-mod-pathol-2025/), [Presence of somatic mutations in most early-stage pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-kanda-panin-1-somatic-mutations-gastroenterology-2012/), [Prognostic and predictive relevance of primary tumor location in patients with RAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer: retrospective analyses of the CRYSTAL and FIRE-3 trials](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tejpar-tumour-location-crystal-fire3-jama-oncol-2017/), [Prognostic and predictive value of primary tumour side in patients with RAS wild-type metastatic colorectal cancer treated with chemotherapy and EGFR directed antibodies in six randomized trials](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-arnold-primary-tumour-side-ras-wild-type-ann-oncol-2017/), [Prospective comprehensive molecular characterization of lung adenocarcinomas for efficient patient matching to approved and emerging therapies](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-jordan-prospective-lung-adenocarcinoma-msk-cancer-discov-2017/), [Real-time targeted genome profile analysis of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas identifies genetic alterations that might be targeted with existing drugs or used as biomarkers](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-singhi-targeted-genome-profiling-3594-pdac-gastroenterology-2019/), [Recurrent GNAS mutations define an unexpected pathway for pancreatic cyst development](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-wu-gnas-ipmn-sci-transl-med-2011/), [Rizvi 2015: the mutational landscape determines who responds to PD-1 blockade in lung cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-rizvi-mutational-landscape-pd1-science-2015/), [STK11/LKB1 Mutations and PD-1 Inhibitor Resistance in KRAS -Mutant Lung Adenocarcinoma](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-kras-nsclc-cancer-discov-2018/), [Subtype-discordant pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma tumors show intermediate clinical and molecular characteristics](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-topham-subtype-discordant-pancreatic-ccr-2021/), [Subtypes of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and their differing responses to therapy](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-collisson-pancreatic-subtypes-nat-med-2011/), [Terminology, molecular features, epidemiology, and management of serrated colorectal neoplasia](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-crockett-nagtegaal-serrated-neoplasia-gastroenterology-2019/), [TGF-beta drives immune evasion in genetically reconstituted colon cancer metastasis](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tauriello-tgfbeta-immune-evasion-colorectal-nature-2018/), [The consensus molecular subtypes of colorectal cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-cms-guinney-nat-med-2015/), [The genomic landscape of SMARCA4 alterations and associations with outcomes in patients with lung cancer](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-schoenfeld-smarca4-alterations-lung-ccr-2020/), [The landscape of somatic mutation in normal colorectal epithelial cells](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-lee-six-somatic-mutation-normal-colorectal-crypts-nature-2019/), [The molecular evolution of acquired resistance to targeted EGFR blockade in colorectal cancers](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-diaz-molecular-evolution-egfr-resistance-colorectal-nature-2012/), [The serrated pathway to colorectal carcinoma: current concepts and challenges](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-bettington-serrated-pathway-colorectal-histopathology-2013/), [TRACERx first 100: tracking how lung cancers evolve, and how chromosomal chaos predicts relapse](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-tracerx-100-nejm-2017/), [Transcription phenotypes of pancreatic cancer are driven by genomic events during tumor evolution](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-chan-seng-yue-pancreatic-transcription-phenotypes-nat-genet-2020/), [Updated molecular testing guideline for the selection of lung cancer patients for treatment with targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-lindeman-lung-molecular-testing-guideline-jto-2018/), [Using multiplexed assays of oncogenic drivers in lung cancers to select targeted drugs](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-kris-lung-cancer-mutation-consortium-jama-2014/), [Whole-exome and targeted gene sequencing of gallbladder carcinoma identifies recurrent mutations in the ErbB pathway](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-li-gallbladder-exome-erbb-nat-genet-2014/), [Whole-exome sequencing of pancreatic cancer defines genetic diversity and therapeutic targets](https://onco.cc/key-papers/paper-witkiewicz-pancreatic-exomes-utsw-nat-commun-2015/)
- ideas: [A guaranteed purchase prize for the first drug against a named hard target](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-undruggable-market-commitment/), [A synthetic lethality map for every cancer driver in every tissue context](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-moon-synthetic-lethality-map-every-driver/), [Add the second drug on day one when the escape route is predictable](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-upfront-bypass-combination/), [An open degrader consortium against every undruggable driver transcription factor](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-moon-open-degrader-consortium/), [An open-science consortium on the undruggable drivers, open until a candidate](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-fund-precompetitive-undruggable-consortium/), [Antibodies that see mutant KRAS and p53 fragments displayed on the cell surface](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-pmhc-bispecifics-public-drivers/), [Covalent chemistry for the RAS mutations that still have no drug](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-pan-ras-covalent-g12d/), [Look for the resistant sub-population before the first dose](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-baseline-ultradeep-resistant-clones/), [Making microsatellite-stable colorectal cancer immunotherapy-responsive](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-immunotherapy-mss-crc/), [Milestone prizes for first-in-class mechanisms reaching human proof of concept](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-fund-first-in-class-prize/), [Off-the-shelf KRAS vaccines after pancreatic cancer surgery](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-shared-kras-vaccine-adjuvant/), [RAS inhibitor combinations and sequence: pan-RAS plus G12D-selective, plus chemotherapy, and what to give after progression](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-pdac-ras-inhibitor-combinations-and-sequencing/), [RAS(ON) inhibitors to convert unresectable pancreatic cancer to resectable](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-ras-inhibitor-neoadjuvant-pdac/), [Self-driving laboratories that run the cancer biology hypothesis loop autonomously](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-moon-self-driving-cancer-labs/), [Treat lung cancer in never-smokers as its own disease, with its own detection programme](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-lung-never-smoker-disease-its-own-programme/), [Turn a brake back on: drugs that reactivate the PP2A phosphatase](https://onco.cc/ideas/idea-bio1-pp2a-activators/)
- pairings: [G12D-selective + pan-RAS(ON) inhibitor (zoldonrasib + daraxonrasib)](https://onco.cc/pairings/g12d-plus-pan-ras/)
- people: [Alberto Bardelli](https://onco.cc/people/alberto-bardelli/), [Andrew Biankin](https://onco.cc/people/andrew-biankin/), [Andrew J. Aguirre](https://onco.cc/people/andrew-aguirre/), [Anirban Maitra](https://onco.cc/people/anirban-maitra/), [Bert Vogelstein](https://onco.cc/people/bert-vogelstein/), [Elena Élez](https://onco.cc/people/elena-elez/), [Eric Van Cutsem](https://onco.cc/people/eric-van-cutsem/), [Ferdinandos Skoulidis](https://onco.cc/people/ferdinandos-skoulidis/), [Frank McCormick](https://onco.cc/people/frank-mccormick/), [John V. Heymach](https://onco.cc/people/john-heymach/), [Kevan M. Shokat](https://onco.cc/people/kevan-shokat/), [Pasi A. Jänne](https://onco.cc/people/pasi-janne/), [Ryan B. Corcoran](https://onco.cc/people/ryan-corcoran/), [Sang Joon Shin](https://onco.cc/people/shin-sang-joon/), [Steven A. Rosenberg](https://onco.cc/people/steven-rosenberg/), [Tanios Bekaii-Saab](https://onco.cc/people/tanios-bekaii-saab/), [Tim Maughan](https://onco.cc/people/tim-maughan/)
- roadmaps: [Colorectal cancer roadmap: from the adenoma-carcinoma sequence and the first screening trials to total mesorectal excision, oxaliplatin, RAS testing, immunotherapy for mismatch repair-deficient disease, ctDNA-guided treatment and organ preservation](https://onco.cc/roadmaps/colorectal-roadmap/), [KRAS roadmap: undruggable → G12C → pan-RAS](https://onco.cc/roadmaps/kras-roadmap/), [Pancreatic cancer roadmap: from Whipple's operation to gemcitabine, FOLFIRINOX, adjuvant chemotherapy, PARP inhibition, KRAS inhibition, vaccines and the surveillance question](https://onco.cc/roadmaps/pancreatic-roadmap/), [Targeted therapy roadmap: imatinib → designed for resistance → the undruggable drivers fall](https://onco.cc/roadmaps/targeted-therapy-roadmap/)
- technologies: [BioEmu (Microsoft)](https://onco.cc/technologies/bioemu/), [Engineered exosomes as drug carriers](https://onco.cc/technologies/exosome-therapeutics/), [In vivo base and prime editing for cancer](https://onco.cc/technologies/in-vivo-gene-editing-cancer/), [KRAS & RAS inhibitors](https://onco.cc/technologies/kras-inhibitors/), [Off-the-shelf cancer vaccines](https://onco.cc/technologies/shared-antigen-vaccine/), [Programmable DNA-targeting therapeutics](https://onco.cc/technologies/programmable-dna-targeting-therapeutics/), [PROTACs & molecular glues (targeted protein degradation)](https://onco.cc/technologies/protac-degrader/), [Small-molecule kinase inhibitors](https://onco.cc/technologies/kinase-inhibitors/), [TCR-T cell therapy](https://onco.cc/technologies/tcr-t/)
- institutions: [Beatson West of Scotland Cancer Centre / CRUK Scotland Institute](https://onco.cc/institutions/beatson-glasgow/), [Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Oncológicas (CNIO)](https://onco.cc/institutions/cnio/), [David H. Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research at MIT](https://onco.cc/institutions/mit-koch/), [Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research](https://onco.cc/institutions/frederick-national-lab/), [Istituto di Candiolo IRCCS (FPO)](https://onco.cc/institutions/candiolo/), [Laura and Isaac Perlmutter Cancer Center at NYU Langone Health](https://onco.cc/institutions/nyu-perlmutter/), [nationales Netzwerk Genomische Medizin Lungenkrebs](https://onco.cc/institutions/nngm/), [UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center](https://onco.cc/institutions/ucsf/)
- bottlenecks: [Incentives reward me-too drugs and marginal gains](https://onco.cc/bottlenecks/b-incentive-misalignment/), [The undruggable drivers](https://onco.cc/bottlenecks/b-undruggable-targets/)
- collections: [Colorectal Cancer Alliance](https://onco.cc/collections/colorectal-cancer-alliance/), [LUNGevity Foundation (and GO2 for Lung Cancer)](https://onco.cc/collections/lungevity/)
- targets: [FAK (PTK2)](https://onco.cc/targets/fak/), [NF1 (neurofibromin)](https://onco.cc/targets/nf1/), [NRAS](https://onco.cc/targets/nras/), [SHP2 (PTPN11)](https://onco.cc/targets/shp2/)

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JSON: https://onco.cc/api/v1/entities/kras.json